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Life cycle applications
Since its inception in 1980, the Butler sequence has been empirically tested no less than 50 limes just within the published English-language literature.
Most of these applications have identified a general conformity to the broad contours of the model, confirming its usefulness as an important theoretical and practical device for describing and predicting the evolution of destinations (Prosser 1995). However, most of the applications have also identified one or more areas where the sequence does not apply to the targeted case study, as demonstrated in the following selected references. Weaver (1990) and Douglas (1997), in the respective cases of Grand Cayman Island and Melanesia, found in such colonial situations that the earliest tourism initiatives were carried out by external interests, and that local, non-elite participation tended to increase as tourism became more developed. Douglas also found evidence of serious resident annoyance and antagonism in the Solomon Islands, which was barely into the involvement stage.
In the case of Niagara Falls, there was no evidence for the loss of local control until well into the late development stage, nor was there evidence that the clientele was shifting towards a psychocentric mode. Furthermore, specialised recreational attractions, such as theme parks, have not superseded the falls as the destination's primary draw (Get/ 1992). Agarwal
(1997) also found, in the case of the English seaside resort ol Torbav, that local control was retained during the development stage and even beyond. In addition, visitors did not display any characteristics during these later stages to suggest adherence to the psychocentric model. Faulkner and Russell (1997) found that the involvement stage in Coolangatta (on the southern Gold Coast) was effectively omitted by the very rapid onset of mass tourism, and that the dynamics of the consolidation stage were far more complex and multifaceted than proposed by Butler. (Butler himself recognised that the involvement stage could be pre-empted by the 'instant resort' e-ffect created by Cancun-like growth pole strategies. Baum (1998) noted that although the Canadian province of Prince Edward Island could be described as experiencing stagnation on the basis of visitation levels, the destination retained a structure of small-scale and local ownership typical of the involvement stage.
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