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Commodification
The gradual commodification of a destination's culture, or its conversion into a commodity in response to the perceived or actual demands of the tourist market, is a major negative sociocultural impact associated with tourism (Greenwood 1989; King & Stewart 199(5). On (irst appearance, this may appear to be a positive development, since tourism confers a tangible monetary value on a product (i.e. the culture) that already exists, but otherwise generates no economic return. The problem occurs when the inherent qualities and meanings of cultural artefacts and performances become less important than the goal of earning revenue from their reproduction. When this happens, the culture may be modified in accordance with the demands of the tourist market, and its original significance eroded or' lost altogether". There are several ways that cultural commodification can occur as a result of tourism, and the following scenario gives one extreme possibility: 1. Tourists are rarely seen in the community, and when they do appear, are invited as "honoured guests' to observe or' participate in authentic local ceremonies without charge. They may be given genuine artefacts as a sign of the high esteem in which they are held by the local community.
2. Visiting tourists become more frequent and hence less of a novelty. They are allowed to observe local ceremonies for a small fee, and genuine artefacts may be sold to them at a small charge.
3. The community is regularly visited by a large number of tourists. Ceremonies are altered to provide more appeal to tourists, and performances are made at regular intervals suitable to the tourist market. Thus, authenticity gives way to attractions of a more contrived nature. Prices are set at the highest possible levels allowed by the market. Large amounts of cheaply produced souvenirs are made available for sale. (Ion-current measures may be taken to safeguard authentic elements and displays of the culture (see section 9.3.4).
4. The integrity of the original culture is entirely lost due to the combined effects of commodification and modernisation. Commodification extends into the most sacred and profound aspects of the culture, despite measures taken to safeguard the culture.
While the residents of a destination may be realising significant financial returns from tourism bv the fourth stage, the contention is that serious social problems may arise in association with the loss of cultural identity and the concomitant disruption of traditional norms and structures that fostered social stability. According to Greenwood (1989, p. 179), 'commoditis-ation of culture in effect robs people of the very meanings by which they organise their lives'. In addition, conflicts may ertipt in the community over the distribution of revenue, appropriate rates of remuneration for performers and producers (who may have formerly volunteered their services) and other market-related issues with which the society may not be equipped to cope. Compounding the issue is the possibility that the progression can occur over a relatively short time period as tourism spreads into an area, thereby reducing the chances that effective adaptive strategies can be implemented by the community.
Commodification is particularly evident in traditional societies that are rapidly exposed to relatively intensive and invasive levels of tourism involvement. Among the classic relevant, case studies are Tana Toraja in Indonesia (Crystal 1989), the Basque community of Fuenterrabia in Spain (Greenwood 1989) and Tonga (Urbanowicz 1989). Maori cultural performances in New Zealand carried out in hotels tend to be more commod-ified and altered than performances that are given in villages, suggesting that venue can play an important role in the process (Tahana & Opper-mann 1998).
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